Signs and Symptoms of Exposure.—Vomiting agents produce a strong pepper-like irritation in the upper respiratory tract, with irritation of the eyes and lacrimation. They cause violent uncontrollable sneezing, coughing, nausea, vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Inhalation causes a burning sensation in the nose and throat, hypersalivation, and rhinorrhea. The sinuses fill rapidly and cause a violent frontal headache. Treatment.—It is of the utmost importance that the mask be worn in spite of coughing, sneezing, salivation, and nausea. If the mask is put on following exposure, symptoms will increase for several minutes in spite of adequate protection. As a consequence, victims may believe the mask is ineffective and remove it, further exposing themselves. While the mask must be worn, it may be lifted from the face briefly, if necessary, to permit vomiting or to drain saliva from the face piece. Carry on duties as vigorously as possible. This will help to lessen and shorten the symptoms. Combat duties usually can be performed in spite of the effects of vomiting agents if an individual is motivated. First aid consists of washing the skin and rinsing the eyes and mouth with water. A mild analgesic may be given to relieve headache. Recovery is usually spontaneous and complete within 1 to 3 hours. SCREENING SMOKES.—Screening smokes fit in with riot-control agents. Their primary use is to obscure vision and to hide targets or areas. When used for this purpose outdoors, they are not generally considered toxic. However, exposure to heavy smoke concentration for extended periods, particularly near the source, may cause illness or death. Under no circumstances should smoke munitions be activated indoors or in closed compartments. Symptomatic treatment of medical problems or discomfort resulting from exposure to screening smokes will generally suffice. WHITE PHOSPHORUS.—White phosphorus (WP) is a pale, waxy solid that ignites spontaneously on contact with air to give a hot, dense, white smoke composed of phosphorus pentoxide particles. While field concentrations of the smoke may cause temporary irritation to the eyes, nose, and throat, casualties from the smoke have not occurred in combat operations. No treatment is necessary, and spontaneous recovery is rapid once the patient is removed from the WP source. White phosphorus smoke not only creates an obscuring smoke, but it also has a secondary effect upon personnel if it contacts the skin. When burning particles of WP embed in the skin, they must be covered with water, a wet cloth, or mud. A freshly mixed 0.5 percent solution of copper sulfate (which produces an airproof black coating of copper phosphide) may be used as a rinse but must not be used as a dressing. The phosphorus particles must be removed surgically. BIOLOGICAL WARFARE Epidemics arising from natural causes have plagued military forces for centuries and in many instances have determined the outcome of campaigns. Recognition of this drain on personnel undoubtedly has led to attempts to produce illness in epidemic proportions, through pollution of water and food supplies as well as through other means. The dissemination of disease-producing organisms has never been employed on any significant scale as a weapon of war. HISTORY Biological warfare has become a very real possibility since World War II because of the advance of knowledge in the various biological science fields. Many countries have indulged in research on the use of microorganisms as a weapon of war, and in the hands of an unscrupulous enemy, antianimal and antiplant agents could be powerful instruments of war, reducing or destroying a nation’s food supply. In this chapter, however, we are concerned only with agents that would be effective against populations. Although their effectiveness has never been established by actual use in war, they are considered to have grave military capabilities. DISPERSAL Biological warfare has certain aspects in common with chemical warfare in that biological agents can be dispersed in the air and travel downwind in the same manner as a gas cloud. These agents may be inhaled unless a protective mask is worn, and they may cause disability or death. They are capable of contaminating clothing, equipment, food, and water supplies. Some types of agents may persist in the target area for considerable periods of time. 8-10