be sprained, sprains of the ankle, wrist, knee, and finger are most common. Symptoms of a sprain include pain or pressure at the joint, pain upon movement, swelling and tenderness, possible loss of movement, and discoloration. Treat all sprains as fractures until ruled out by X-rays. Emergency care for a sprain includes application of cold packs for the first 24 to 48 hours to reduce swelling and to control internal hemorrhage; elevation and rest of the affected area; application of a snug, smooth, figure-eight bandage to control swelling and to provide immobilization (basket weave adhesive bandages can be used on the ankle); a follow-up examination by a medical officer; and X-rays to rule out the presence of a fracture. NOTE: Check bandaged areas regularly for swelling that might cause circulation impairment and loosen bandages if necessary. After the swelling stops (24 to 48 hours), moist heat can be applied for short periods (15 to 30 minutes) to promote healing and reduce swelling. Moist heat can be warm, wet compresses, warm whirlpool baths, etc. CAUTION: Heat should not be applied until 24 hours after the last cold pack. Strains Injuries caused by the forcible overstretching or tearing of muscles or tendons are known as strains. Strains may be caused by lifting excessively heavy loads, sudden or violent movements, or any other action that pulls the muscles beyond their normal limits. The chief symptoms of a strain are pain, lameness or stiffness (sometimes involving knotting of the muscles), moderate swelling at the place of injury, discoloration due to the escape of blood from injured blood vessels into the tissues, possible loss of power, and a distinct gap felt at the site. Keep the affected area elevated and at rest. Apply cold packs for the first 24 to 48 hours to control hemorrhage and swelling. After the swelling stops, apply mild heat to increase circulation and aid in healing. As in sprains, heat should not be applied until 24 hours after the last cold pack. Muscle relaxants, adhesive straps, and complete immobilization of the area may be indicated. Evacuate the victim to a medical facility where X-rays can be taken to rule out the presence of a fracture. Contusions Contusions, commonly called bruises, are responsible for the discoloration that almost always accompanies injuries to bones, joints, and muscles. Contusions are caused by blows that damage bones, muscles, tendons, blood vessels, nerves, and other body tissues. They do not necessarily break the skin. The symptoms of a contusion or bruise are familiar to everyone. There is immediate pain when the blow is received. Swelling occurs because blood from the broken vessels leaks into the soft tissue under the skin. At first the injured place is reddened due to local skin irritation from the blow. Later the characteristic “black and blue” marks appear. Perhaps several days later, the skin turns yellowish or greenish before normal coloration returns. The bruised area is usually very tender. As a rule, slight bruises do not require treatment. However, if the victim has severe bruises, treat for shock. Immobilize the injured part, keep it at rest, and protect it from further injury. Sometimes the victim will be more comfortable if the bruised area is bandaged firmly with an elastic or gauze bandage. If possible, elevate the injured part. A sling may be used for a bruised arm or hand. Pillows or folded blankets may be used to elevate a bruised leg. ENVIRONMENTAL INJURIES LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recall the classification and evaluation process for burns, and determine the appropriate treatment for each type of burn. Under the broad category of environmental injuries, we will consider a number of emergency problems. Exposure to extremes of temperature, whether heat or cold, causes injury to skin, tissues, blood vessels, vital organs, and, in some cases, the whole body. In addition, contact with the sun’s rays, electrical current, or certain chemicals causes injuries similar in character to burns. THERMAL BURNS True burns are generated by exposure to extreme heat that overwhelms the body’s defensive mechanisms. Burns and scalds are essentially the same injury: Burns are caused by dry heat, and scalds are caused by moist heat. The seriousness of the injury can 4-56